Spelling, caught and taught

How do we learn to spell?

Spelling like writing has often been surrounded by many misconceptions concerning how it is developed. This is an area of the school curriculum that has been misunderstood by children, parents and even some teachers.  The standard way to teach spelling in schools has generally been through the memorisation of lists of words and learning rules.

But as I pointed out the last time I did a post on spelling (here), it is impossible to learn the number of words that we use as adults by memorising lists. So, while spelling lists might help children to memorise some words, proficient spelling requires the development of a range of generic skills that are necessary for effective spelling. I outlined these 10 key skills in the previous post (here).

The stages of spelling growth

Children begin to learn about spelling in the preschool years as they are immersed in a rich language environment that supports them as readers, offers them many varied opportunities to write and encourages an environment where it is natural to explore words and 'play' with them. There are many skills that children need to learn that eventually they can apply as part of writing for varied purposes. Most children move through a series of stages in spelling development.  While these are never discrete stages, they are reognisable with most children. Understanding the stages will help us to choose the right strategies to help them become better at spelling.  Gentry and Gillet (1993) suggest that most children move through the following stages:

Pre-phonetic - this occurs very early on (from age 2-3 years) and involves the child trying to form letters or simply drawing symbols that are an attempt to represent letters.

Semi-phonetic - at this stage (age 4 and up) the child is able to write most letters and even some approximations to words, and they know some of the sounds they make (as well as letter names).

Phonetic - eventually the child is able to represent sounds with the appropriate letters (single letters at first). They also begin to represent words in more conventional ways, but often they will use invented spelling patterns where the word has some (but not all) of the letters correct. This begins for most children from 5 years of age.

Transitional - at this stage children (aged 6-7 years) are able to think about the word, develop visual memory and begin to internalise the spelling pattern and know when words 'look right'.

Conventional - at this more mature stage the child can use both visual and auditory skills and memory as well as meaning based strategies (like seeing how the word fits in context). Now they can write multisyllabic words from memory and find the learning of new words much easier as they apply their skills and strategies from one situation to another.  This occurs for most children from about 8 years of age but continues to develop throughout the primary years of schooling.

How can I help children to be better spellers?

Most children learn quite naturally to experiment with writing and spelling, and adults support this at a very early age. Even as we read to toddlers we point to words and language devices; this in a sense is the beginning of spelling awareness (not just reading). Early memorising of rhymes and songs, playing with sounds and words play of all kinds is also the beginning of spelling. The 10 necessary skills outlined in my previous post (here) are acquired both incidentally ('caught') and by explicit help ('taught') and instruction. There are a variety of more explicit strategies that teachers and parents can use to support spelling development in the primary school years. I will share 8 key strategies that many people find helpful (some of which I shared in my last post).

1. 'Have a go' strategy

This is a strategy for trying to spell unknown words as part of the writing process (ideal for children aged 6 years and older). Teach your child (or children) to apply the following strategy when they need to spell an unknown word.

• Ask yourself, have I seen it before?
• Say the word out loud and try to predict how many syllables you can hear.
• Ask do I know any other words that sound almost the same?
• How are those words spelt?
• 'Have a go' (Aussie vernacular for trying to do something) at the word.
• Ask yourself, does the word look right?
• Have additional attempts at getting the word right.

2. Look-cover-write

This is a strategy that you can teach children of any age (who have started to write) to acquire new words. It has three simple steps.

Step 1 - When you need to remember how to spell a new word look at it, say it out loud, examine the number of syllables, any unusual grapheme/phoneme relationships etc.
Step 2 - Cover the word
Step 3 - Try to write it from memory

3. Here is a collection of self-help strategies - children as young as 6 can be taught to try to learn new words.

• After covering the word try to picture it in your mind.
• Uncover the word and trace the letters, cover and try again
• Look at the new word, break it into syllables. After studying the syllables cover the word and try to write it.
• Look at the new word and try to memorise the most difficult part of the word (e.g. the 'ght' in sight).
• Check your writing environment for the word, or one like it (wordlists, other writing, dictionaries etc).

4. Using sound to visualise words

An alternative to some of the more visual strategies above is a simple auditory strategy that can be used as follows. The key to the strategy is to keep encouraging the child; avoid making the child feel like spelling is one big test session.

• Ask the child to write the word after saying it slowly at least twice.
• Encourage them to listen to the word as they say it and to try to write the sounds in order.
• Now repeat the word breaking it into its parts or syllables; for multisyllabic words some teachers have the children clap as they say the syllables out loud.
• Encourage the child to try to think of other words that sound the same and to think about how the other words are written.
• Finally, have the child write the word (bit by bit) as they say the syllables.

5. Word family approaches

Many young children will benefit from an approach that presents words in sets that have similar phonological elements. For example, you might present your children with a group of words ending in 'ight', that begin with 'thr' etc. You can have fun forming the lists with your child (or children), writing them down, then trying to remember them. There are many good spelling games that support this type of approach (you can read more about these games here).

6. Using a word connection strategy

This is a strategy that supports the development of the 'connection' skill mentioned in my previous post on spelling. It is a meaning-based strategy.

• Ask the child whether the word to be spelled reminds them of another word they know.
• Encourage them to explain how it is similar and then use the information to help spell the word.
• Then encourage them to think of other words like these words and to use parts of the new associated words to write the new word.
• Encourage them to think of places or contexts where they might have seen this word used.
• Then try to write the new word.

7. Morphemic (meaning-based) strategies

Photo courtesy Wiki Commons

For some words a meaning-based approach will help older writers. This starts with the parent or teacher pointing out a morpheme within a new word, explaining the meaning, then analysing a set of words. For example, a word like 'unexpected' can be broken into two elements, 'un' and 'expected'. Discuss with the child or children what 'expected' means and then explain the meaning of the prefix 'un'. Have the child think of other words that fit this pattern and then write them down. Depending on the age of the children you might even go further with an example like this and break it into 'un', 'expect' and 'ed'. In this instance you would also consider how the suffix 'ed' changes the meaning of the word.

For older children (aged 11 and up) you might also consider exploring Latin roots to aid spelling. For example:

• 'mare' meaning 'sea' as used in marine
• 'pedis' meaning 'foot' as used in pedestrian
• 'gress' meaning to walk as used in 'progress' and 'transgress'
• 'tract' meaning to 'draw', 'drag' or 'pull' as used in 'attract' and 'contract'
• 'hyper' meaning 'excessive' or 'excessively' as in 'hyperactivity'

You can find a good resource for basic Latin word elements here.

8. Mnemonics

Mnemonics are devices that help us to remember things. I'm not a big fan of this approach but sometimes it helps when a child (or adult) just can't manage to avoid confusing two spellings. So it's usually a strategy that people use to remember how to spell words that they get wrong habitually. A mnemonic simply helps to remove confusion or narrow the options for spelling. There is a down side to mnemonics though. If you use them too much you tend to reduce the use of other key spelling strategies, reducing your confidence and risk-taking as a writer. A simple example of a mnemonic applied to spelling is one used to help us know the difference between 'affect' and 'effect'. It is based on the word 'raven' used as an acronym:

R - remember
A - 'affect'
V - verb
E - 'effect'
N - noun

Online resources

There a variety of online resources that aim to help children learn more about spelling. Most are simply ways to memorise lists of words but even this basic strategy has a place, particularly for irregular words that are exceptions to our languages rules. An advantage of online resources is their appeal for young children and the instant feedback that children receive. One useful site is Kidsspell.com (here) that offers varied wordlists, a free spellchecker and thesaurus, games to play etc. You can also find sites that allow children to apply strategies like the ones I have described online (see for example application of 'look, cover, write' on this site). You can find other games and activities at 'Games aquarium' (here) and others on the Kent Junior High School site (here). But remember, spelling is much more than learning lists and playing online games.

Summing up

Language is always undergoing change (see my post on 'English, the Inventive Language') and with increased use of mobile phones, Facebook, Twitter and so on, it is bound to change more than at any other time in history. But accurate spelling is still important. With spellcheckers everywhere and the preparedness of the young to invent their own language online, some suggest that the teaching of spelling isn't as important, but this of course is nonsense. Conventional spelling is still important - let anyone come up with an invented version of your name and see how you react. Accurate and consistent spelling is not just about conventions and good taste; it is important for the communication of meaning.

Spelling is an integral part of reading, writing, speaking and listening. It is learned as we use language for real purposes. But it isn't simply 'caught'; there is an important need for teaching. Most of this 'teaching' does not occur through memorising lists of words, but rather as we draw children's attention to variations in the English language. We need to show them simple rules for spelling, offer strategies for getting words right, provide tools for seeking correct spellings (including dictionaries and spell checkers),  give them new knowledge about how our complex language works and as we simply encourage them to use and 'play' with words.

Other links and resources
 
The Tasmanian Department of Education has an excellent web resource that offers a range of practical strategies to use to help spelling (here)
 
'Guide to English Spelling', David Appleyard (here)
 
My previous post on 'Twenty Fun Language & Thinking Games for Travellers' has some relevant activities that could be adapted (here).


Christine Topfer & Deidre Arendt (2010). Guiding Thinking for Effective Spelling, Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation (here).
 
Diane Snowball & Faye Bolton (1999). Spelling K-8: Planning and Teaching, York (ME): Stenhouse Publishers (here).

English, the inventive language

The millionth English word?

In a recent CNN news report John D. Suttor reports (here) that according to Global Language Monitor 'Web 2.0' was declared the millionth English language word on Wednesday 10 June. Global Language Monitor is a web site that uses a mathematics formula to estimate how often words are created. If we could be sure that this was the millionth word (which we can't) it would perhaps be fitting given the proliferation of new words in the last 10-20 years generated by the establishment of the Internet.

The 'Million Word March' has not been well received by linguists who see the notion that you can track the creation of words mathematically as nonsense. Language is always changing. But the man behind the counter Paul J.J. Payack argues that what is more important than just counting words is the idea that the idea that English is a complex global language and unlike some other languages (e.g. he cites French) is less concerned about ring fencing their vocabularies. Australians love inventing words. In fact one of my favourite radio presenters (Richard Glover) invented a program segment on ABC radio that is devoted to listeners inventing a new word each week to fit a specific definition. For example, the new word listeners created for that sense of joy and elation when you find a parking space right outside where you need to go, was named "autopia". He has even published his 'Dag's dictionary' (here) and the adult version led to a kid's version with such classic new words as 'Dinobore' - a word for the kid who can't talk about anything other than dinosaurs (kids version here). NOTE: a 'dag' can mean dried dung on a sheep's rear end. But in this instance it means 'an amusing person', so to be called 'a real dag' would be seen as a nice comment not an offensive one.

English the changing language

There is no doubt that English is a constantly changing language, but so are other languages. In fact, different languages borrow from one another. English has partly succeeded in becoming such an international language because it has incorporated so many words from other languages (e.g. Latin, French and German). Its users have also been good at adapting, combining and cannibalising words.

But English has changed not just in terms of vocabulary. Even the way we spell words has changed over time. Many like to cite William Shakespeare's multiple spellings of his own name as an example of the variability of spelling by individual language users, let alone across generations of writers.

Even the way we pronounce known words changes over time. It has been interesting to note Australian news readers in the last year suddenly observing the 'n' in columnist after treating it like a silent letter for generations.

Finally, what is seen as acceptable grammar may change over time. A relatively recent change has been the demise in concerns over split infinitives. Many people have also given up the practice of trying not to end a sentence with a preposition. Many will be aware of Churchill's famous statement - "This is the sort of nonsense up with which I will not put" - which some assume he used to make fun of those who try to avoid putting a preposition at the end of a sentence. Others think he was serious. The point is that we can take rules too far and that even grammar changes.

There is of course always a need to vary language according to purpose and audience, some of which demand (and deserve) standard English conventions. But language use varies across language registers. A 'register' is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting (see Halliday and Hasan's classic work on 'Cohesion in English'). If you are giving your first address to the local Toastmasters' Club, the language will be different to that which you use with the under 16 baseball team that you coach after school. Similarly, in written language the specific written genre (i.e. a text structure that reflects a specific purpose and audience) required will change the way you use language.

While there is a need for conventional spelling, pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary and conformity to language registers and genres to enable effective communication, language is adaptable and is always changing. This should be seen as a natural part of any language not a weakness.

Being inventive with language

Building on what has been said above, I want to argue that language 'play' is important for children's language and literacy development. One of the most important things about early language and literacy development is the need to encourage creativity and inventiveness. No, I'm not talking about encouraging invented spelling and sloppy word pronunciation (although there is a place to allow the young writer to feel free to use approximate spellings when doing free writing); I'm talking about children being encouraged to experiment and have fun with language.

Word play and creative use of words and sound is one of the great joys of language use and something that children should experience. In fact, as I have mentioned in previous posts, language play is vital for the development of creative children (here) and effective writers (here). When I played with my children, and now as I still play with my grandchildren, language play and inventiveness is a constant source of amusement, challenge and stimulation. Children love the inventive language of rhymes and chants. One of the reasons they like nursery rhymes is because of their play with words:

Fe fi, fo fum, I smell the blood of an Englishman...
Incy wincy spider climbed up the waterspout..
Hickory, dickory, dock...

Chants are a special type of rhyming fun that have been around for centuries and that are still heard in any playground. June Factor has published a number of volumes of well known Australian chants and rhymes, including 'All right vegemite!" (more details here). Who could forget:

Jelly on the plate, jelly on the plate
Wiggle woggle, wiggle woggle
Jelly on the plate.....

Children also like to invent new words or play with known words. I can't play with my grandchildren without us inventing new names for toy animals, cars, dolls, stuffed animals, insects. We create imaginary monsters like Schlickleback and Wontilbong and assign names to cars that match their colour, shape and 'personality', or use alliteration to help us (me!) remember them. Willy is a white car, Billy is a blue one and Greg is a green one.

But we also combine words to invent our own new 'English' words. My grandchildren all know what a 'Huggle' is (it's a combination of a cuddle and a hug), and I grew up knowing that to be 'splificated' by my maths teacher was not good. Who knows when and how this 18th century nonsense word became a mainstream transitive verb, but I suspect it's origin was as part of word play.

Some very young children even use a type of gibberish language which at times is little more than random sounds that are an approximation to language rather than a real language that communicates. But it is still motivated by language play and exploration. Sometimes this seemingly unintelligible language is used in more sophisticated forms by older children as they transform known rhymes and songs with invented words. For example, 'Twinkle, twinkle little star, how I wonder what you are' might become:

Blinkle, blonkle wickle tar, Billy sat on Sally's galah

Children's love of nonense, repetition, and inventiveness with words is something that many children's writers use to great effect. The master of course is Dr Seuss and when this natural love of language play meets written language in like form you ofen find a level of reading engagement that surprises you (here). Children will seek out joke books (for example), rhymes, chants and read almost any book that does outrageous and inventive things with words. I've written a previous post on the use of humour in literature (here).

Summing up

• Language is constantly changing
• English is a very adaptable language
• Playing with language is a common and desirable thing to do with one's language
• Language play and inventiveness is good for children's language development, creativity, thinking ability, reading and writing.